How remembering changes what we remember

When we revisit a conversation years later, we may feel that we remember it just as we did shortly after it ended. We remember specific words, our own reactions, and the emotions we felt. Yet we rarely consider whether what we learned afterward has influenced our memories. The act of remembering itself can also make it easier or harder to recall the same information later.

That does not mean memory is fictional. Memories are not faithful records of the past. They are shaped by several different processes, each of which works differently. Not every act of remembering changes the content of a memory. Changes in what we can later retrieve do not necessarily mean that the original memory itself has changed.

Remembering is not replaying

When we recall a past event, we do not reconstruct all its details with equal accuracy. Our memories depend, among other things, on what we still remember, how we interpret the event today, and what we have learned since. A classic example is the effect of questions asked after an event.

In a study by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer, participants watched films of car accidents and then answered questions about what had happened. The wording of the questions influenced their estimates of the vehicles’ speed. In a second experiment, participants who were asked a question using a stronger verb to describe the collision were more likely to report seeing broken glass a week later, even though there was none in the film.1

This finding suggests that information acquired after an event can influence how we remember it later. However, it does not establish exactly what changed. It remains unclear whether the memory itself changed or whether participants incorporated the later suggestion when answering the question.

Exposure to misinformation does not always impair memory. In two experiments, Adam Putnam, Victor Sungkhasettee, and Henry Roediger found that participants who noticed and remembered discrepancies between the original material and later misinformation were sometimes better at recognizing the original details. This suggests that noticing differences between the original and later information can, under certain conditions, help people recognize the original material.2

The reconstructive nature of memory does not mean that every new piece of information replaces what came before. To better understand how remembering itself influences later memory, it is worth examining another phenomenon: situations in which retrieving some information makes other information harder to recall.

When remembering makes other information harder to access

Imagine that you first recall some information and then try to retrieve the rest. Practicing retrieval of part of a set of information can make it harder to recall other information later. In cognitive psychology, this phenomenon is known as retrieval-induced forgetting.

Michael Anderson, Robert Bjork, and Elizabeth Bjork studied this phenomenon using lists of words grouped into categories. Participants learned the words and then practiced recalling only some of the items from selected categories. In a later test, they recalled the remaining words from those categories less successfully than similar words from categories they had not practiced. The effect persisted even after the researchers controlled for the influence of earlier responses on later recall. However, it did not affect all words to the same extent. It was more pronounced for high-frequency words, while the effect was small or absent for less common words.3

What causes this phenomenon? One of the main explanations invokes active inhibition. According to this hypothesis, retrieving one piece of information can make other competing information in memory harder to access. This is not the only possible interpretation, however. A 2014 meta-analysis by Kou Murayama and colleagues largely supported the inhibition hypothesis but also identified findings that were harder to reconcile with this mechanism. The conclusions depended, among other things, on how the effect was measured. Inhibition therefore remains an important explanation, but it is not the only possible mechanism.4

It is worth distinguishing between storing information and being able to retrieve it. Difficulty recalling a related word after practicing the retrieval of other information does not mean that the word has been erased from memory. Experiments demonstrate impaired recall under certain conditions, not the irreversible loss of information.

Findings from experiments using word lists cannot be directly generalized to personal memories. Such lists make it possible to control competition between pieces of information. They do not, however, capture the complexity of autobiographical memories, their emotional significance, or later changes in how events are interpreted.

Can retrieval change the memory itself?

Retrieval-induced forgetting primarily concerns difficulty recalling particular information. Research on memory reconsolidation asks a different question: after a consolidated memory is reactivated, can it become susceptible to modification and then stabilize again?

Animal studies indicate that reactivating a consolidated memory can, under certain conditions, temporarily increase its susceptibility to disruption or updating. Studies involving humans also suggest that reactivation can lead to memory modifications. However, it can be difficult to determine whether the observed changes actually result from reconsolidation or from other cognitive processes.5

Simply remembering an event does not necessarily trigger this process. The conditions under which a memory is reactivated may matter, as may the introduction of information that conflicts with prior expectations. Similar changes in later recall can also result from other learning processes. Reviews of the research describe findings consistent with the reconsolidation hypothesis, alongside difficulties replicating some effects and alternative explanations. Reconsolidation therefore remains a possible explanation for some memory changes, but not all observed effects in humans can be definitively attributed to it.56

These two phenomena are worth distinguishing. Reconsolidation concerns whether reactivation can make a consolidated memory susceptible to modification. Retrieval-induced forgetting, by contrast, describes situations in which recalling some information makes it harder to access other related information later. Both areas of research suggest that memory is dynamic, but they concern different processes.

What can we say about personal memory?

These distinctions also matter when we examine our own memories. We may remember the course of an old conversation well while interpreting the other person’s intentions differently over time. We may also forget certain details and still be convinced that we remember the entire event accurately. Yet not every such change means that the original memory has been modified through reconsolidation. Our interpretation of an event may change, our access to specific information may change, or the way we connect past experiences with later knowledge may change. Models of autobiographical memory describe memories as constructions shaped by the interaction between knowledge of our own past and our current goals and retrieval cues.7

Confidence that we remember something accurately does not guarantee that our memory matches what actually happened. In a study by Craig Barclay and Henry Wellman, participants recorded everyday events over four months, and their memory was tested five times over the following years. Over time, their accuracy in dating and ordering events declined. Recognition of previously recorded events remained high, but after delays of one to three months, participants were more likely to recognize events that had never happened as their own memories. Their confidence in their answers remained high despite these errors. This finding comes from a specific study and does not establish that confidence and accuracy always diverge across all types of autobiographical memory.8

The reconstructive nature of memory does not mean that memories are generally inaccurate. Memory’s susceptibility to various influences does not make every account of the past unreliable. What we can later retrieve depends, among other things, on how we retrieve information and on what has happened between successive attempts to remember. It is therefore worth distinguishing between what we remember and how we interpret the past today. These two elements, however, cannot always be clearly separated.

References

  1. Anderson, M. C., Bjork, R. A., & Bjork, E. L. (1994). Remembering can cause forgetting: Retrieval dynamics in long-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(5), 1063–1087. DOI: 10.1037/0278-7393.20.5.1063
  2. Barclay, C. R., & Wellman, H. M. (1986). Accuracies and inaccuracies in autobiographical memories. Journal of Memory and Language, 25(1), 93–103. DOI: 10.1016/0749-596X(86)90023-9
  3. Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107(2), 261–288. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.107.2.261
  4. Elsey, J. W. B., Van Ast, V. A., & Kindt, M. (2018). Human memory reconsolidation: A guiding framework and critical review of the evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 144(8), 797–848. DOI: 10.1037/bul0000152
  5. Jardine, K. H., Huff, A. E., Wideman, C. E., McGraw, S. D., & Winters, B. D. (2022). The evidence for and against reactivation-induced memory updating in humans and nonhuman animals. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 136, Article 104598. DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104598
  6. Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13(5), 585–589. DOI: 10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80011-3
  7. Murayama, K., Miyatsu, T., Buchli, D., & Storm, B. C. (2014). Forgetting as a consequence of retrieval: A meta-analytic review of retrieval-induced forgetting. Psychological Bulletin, 140(5), 1383–1409. DOI: 10.1037/a0037505
  8. Putnam, A. L., Sungkhasettee, V. W., & Roediger, H. L., III. (2017). When misinformation improves memory: The effects of recollecting change. Psychological Science, 28(1), 36–46. DOI: 10.1177/0956797616672268