Reasoning and the cognitive processes behind problem solving

Have you ever found yourself with a clear goal but no idea how to reach it? You know exactly what you want to achieve, yet one attempt after another fails to produce results. Solving a problem does not always require greater concentration or a longer search for an answer. Sometimes the difficulty lies in the way we understand the situation itself.

Cognitive psychology shows that problem solving involves several interacting mental processes. The way we understand a problem plays an important role because it influences which solutions we consider in the first place. Sometimes we do not need to analyze a situation more intensively. We simply need to look at it from a different perspective.

How We Represent Problems

When faced with a problem, we create a mental representation of it. We identify the starting point and the goal, and consider possible ways of reaching it. Newell and Simon described this structure using the concept of a problem space. From this perspective, problem solving involves searching for a path that leads to the goal.1

Our representation does not always account for all the relevant features of a situation. Sometimes we rely on incorrect assumptions. As a result, we limit the range of possible solutions.

Imagine that your computer suddenly stops working. A week earlier, its graphics card failed. You therefore suspect that the graphics card is responsible again. You focus on checking it, overlooking the fact that the actual cause is a loose power cable. Your previous experience has guided your search, but at the same time, it has made it harder to notice other possible causes.

Reasoning can be helpful in situations like this. Deductive reasoning allows us to draw conclusions from established premises. Inductive reasoning, in turn, helps us formulate generalizations and hypotheses based on observations. Both forms of reasoning help us analyze a situation and evaluate possible explanations.2

If a computer failure has occurred several times after a software update, we might suspect that the two events are related. This does not mean, however, that the update actually caused the failure. That assumption still needs to be tested.

Working Memory and Cognitive Control

Analyzing a problem often requires us to consider several pieces of information at once. We also need to compare possible solutions and anticipate the consequences of different actions. Working memory plays an important role here. It allows us to temporarily store and process information needed to carry out the task at hand.3

Research on mathematical problem solving supports its importance. A meta-analysis by Ji and Guo (2023) included 130 studies and more than 43,000 participants. It found a moderate association between working memory capacity and performance on such tasks. This does not mean, however, that working memory alone determines how effectively we solve problems. The type of task and prior knowledge also play important roles.3

Cognitive control, which is associated with executive functions, is equally important. It helps us direct attention, inhibit dominant responses, and adjust our behavior to changing conditions. This allows us to resist choosing the first available option and consider other possibilities.4

Heuristics and the Pitfalls of Thinking

We do not always analyze every available possibility. We often rely on heuristics, or simplified thinking strategies. They allow us to find potential solutions more quickly. They also help us draw on previous experience without having to start the analysis from scratch.

Problems arise when a familiar strategy does not fit a new task. One example is mental set, the tendency to keep using a method that has worked in the past, even when a simpler alternative is available. Abraham Luchins (1942) studied this phenomenon and showed that previous experience can make it harder to recognize other ways of solving a problem.5

A related phenomenon is functional fixedness. It refers to the difficulty of seeing objects as having uses beyond those for which we normally use them.6

A classic example comes from Karl Duncker's experiment. Participants were given a candle, a box of thumbtacks, and matches. Their task was to attach the candle to a wall so that wax would not drip onto the floor. The solution was to empty the box and attach it to the wall using the thumbtacks. The box could then serve as a candle holder.6

The way the objects were presented mattered. Participants who received the thumbtacks inside the box had greater difficulty recognizing its alternative use than those who were shown the empty box and the other objects separately.6

Previous experience can therefore both help us solve problems and limit our ability to see other possibilities. Familiar patterns are useful as long as they fit the structure of the task.

Insight and a Change in Perspective

Sometimes a solution only becomes apparent when we look at a problem from a different perspective. This phenomenon is known as insight and is often associated with the sudden experience of an Aha!

One process associated with insight is the restructuring of a problem representation. This involves changing the way information is organized and the available possibilities are perceived. It can occur after a period of impasse, when the strategy used so far stops producing results.

Insight, however, is neither a magical solution nor a process entirely separate from analytical thinking. Earlier analysis can prepare the ground for a change in perspective. Yet the feeling of sudden realization does not guarantee that the solution is correct. Wiley and Danek (2024) point out that problem restructuring and the subjective experience of Aha! are related, but do not always occur together.7

Conclusion

Problem solving requires several cognitive processes to work together. Reasoning helps us evaluate possible solutions, working memory allows us to manipulate information, and cognitive control helps us change ineffective strategies. Heuristics simplify the search for solutions, but can sometimes make it harder to recognize other possibilities.

The way we represent the problem itself is particularly important. We do not always lack the necessary knowledge or analytical abilities. Sometimes it is our understanding of the situation that limits us. Finding a solution may therefore require not more intensive thinking, but questioning assumptions that previously seemed obvious.

References

  1. Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human Problem Solving. Prentice-Hall.
  2. Markman, A. B., & Gentner, D. (2001). Thinking. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 223–247. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.223
  3. Ji, Z., & Guo, K. (2023). The association between working memory and mathematical problem solving: A three-level meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1091126. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1091126
  4. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
  5. Luchins, A. S. (1942). Mechanization in problem solving: The effect of Einstellung. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 54(6), i–95. DOI: 10.1037/h0093502
  6. Duncker, K. (1945). On Problem-Solving (L. S. Lees, Trans.). Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 58(5), i–113. DOI: 10.1037/h0093599
  7. Wiley, J., & Danek, A. H. (2024). Restructuring processes and Aha! experiences in insight problem solving. Nature Reviews Psychology, 3, 42–55. DOI: 10.1038/s44159-023-00257-x